ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: APPLYING THE CONVEYANCE
EQUATION (PART 11)
In order to see how the minimal quantum extent and content of our
smallest possible elementary distinction relates to known elementary particles,
we develop equations that can be used to describe the combination of up- and
down-quarks to form the proton and neutron of the Hydrogen atom.
We choose the Hydrogen atom to start
with because it is the simplest, most stable, and most abundant, even though
very reactive, known element in the universe. If all forms of substance are
quantized, then in order for quarks to combine in stable structures, they must
satisfy certain integer equations reflecting the quantization of matter and
energy. We call those Diophantine (integer) equations the equations of
Dimensional Extrapolation, because they convey the logical structure of reality
into the space-time domain of our 3S-1t experience. We will show why stability
depends on the integer equation representing the combination of two or more
particles to form a third particle. This family of Diophantine equations is
represented mathematically by the expression Σni=1 (Xn)m
= Zm
The Pythagorean Theorem equation, the
Fermat’s Last Theorem equation, and other important equations are contained
within this general expression. We mention this fact here because these
theorems play key roles in the geometry and mathematics of Dimensional
Extrapolation and the combination of elementary particles to form stable
physical structures. Because the various forms of this expression as m varies from 3 to 9 conveys the
geometry of 9-dimensional reality to our observational domain of 3S-1t, we call
this expression the “Close Conveyance Expression”, and individual equations of
the expression “Close Conveyance Equations”.
When n
= m = 2, the expression yields the equation
(X1)2 + (X2)2 = Z2
which, when related to areas,
describes the addition of two square areas, A1 and A2
with sides equal to X1 and X2 respectively, to form a
third area, A3, with sides equal to Z. When these squares are
arranged in a plane with two corners of each square coinciding with corners of
the other squares to form a right triangle, as shown below, we have a geometric
representation of the familiar Pythagorean Theorem demonstrating that the sum
of the squares of the sides of any right triangle is equal to the square of the
third side (the hypotenuse) of that triangle.
The Pythagorean Theorem
(AB)2 + (BC)2 = (AC)2
We use this simple equation in Dimensional Extrapolation 13 to define the
rotation and orthogonal projection from one dimensional domain into another, in
the plane of the projection. There are an infinite number of solutions for this
equation, one for every conceivable right triangle, but in a quantized reality,
we are only concerned with the integer solutions. Considering the Pythagorean
equation as a Diophantine equation, we find that there exists an infinite
sub-set of solutions with AB = X1, BC = X2 and AC = Z
equal to integers. Members of this subset, e.g. (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (8, 15,
17), etc. i.e., (32 + 42 = 52, 52 +
122 = 132, 82 + 152 = 172,
…) are called “Pythagorean triplets”.
When n = 2 and m = 3, the
expression becomes the equation
(X1)3 + (X2)3 = Z3.
When we define X1, X2
and Z as measures of volumes, just
as we defined them as measures of areas when n = m = 2, we can apply this equation to quantal volumes in a
three-dimensional domain. Using the minimal quantal volume as the unit of
measurement, and setting it equal to one, we have a Diophantine equation
related to our hypothetical elementary particle with minimal spinning volume
containing uniform substance: if it is spherical, we can set its radius equal
to r1, and if there is a
second uniform spinning particle rotating at maximum velocity, with radius r2, we can describe the
combination of the two particles by the expression 4/3π(r1)3 + 4/3π(r2)3.
If this combination produces a third spinning spherical object we have:
4/3π(r1)3 + 4/3π(r2)3
= 4/3π(r3)3,
where r3 is the radius of the new particle. Dividing through
by 4/3π, we have:
(r1)3 + (r2)3 =
(r3)3, which is a
Diophantine equation of the form of the Fermat equation,
Xm + Ym = Zm when m =3.
Notice that the factor, 4/3π cancels out, indicating that this
equation is obtained regardless of the shape of the particles, as long as the
shape and substance is the same for all three particles. This is an important
fact because we found in investigating the Cabibbo angle that the
electron, while symmetrical, is not necessarily spherical. 28; 70; 95
Note also, that the maximum rotational velocity and angular momentum will be
different for particles with different radii, because the inertial mass of each
particle will depend upon its total volume. In a quantized reality, the radii
must be integer multiples of the minimum quantum length. Since this equation is
of the same form as Fermat’s equation, Fermat’s
Last Theorem tells us that if r1
and r2 are integers, r3 cannot be an integer.
This means that the right-hand side of this equation, representing the
combination of two quantum particles, cannot be a symmetric quantum particle.
But, because Planck’s principle of quantized energy and mass tells us that no
particle can contain fractions of mass and/or energy units, the right-hand side
of the equation represents an unstable asymmetric spinning particle. The
combined high-velocity angular momentum of the new particle will cause it to
spiral wildly and fly apart. This may lead us to wonder how it is that there
are stable particles in the universe, and why there is any physical universe at
all. Again, we are faced with Leibniz’s most important question: why is there
something instead of nothing?
The answer turns out to be relatively simple, but is hidden from
us by the limitations of our methods of thinking and observation if we allow
them to be wholly dependent upon our physical sense organs. For example, we
think of a sphere as the most perfect symmetrical object; but this is an
illusion. Spherical objects can exist in a Newton-Leibniz world, but we
actually exist in a Planck-Einstein world. In the real world, revealed by
Planck and Einstein, the most perfectly spherical object in three dimensions is
a regular polyhedron. (polyhedron = multi-sided three-dimensional form;
regular; all sides are of equal length.) The most easily visualized is the
cube, which is most precisely defined geometrically as a six-sided regular
polyhedron. 96 In the Newton-Leibniz
world, the number of sides of a regular polynomial could increase indefinitely.
If we imagine the number of sides increasing without limit while the total
volume approaches a finite limit, the object appears to become a sphere. But in
the quantized world of Planck and Einstein, the number of sides possible is
limited, because of the finite size of the smallest possible unit of
measurement (which we are defining here) is relative to the size of the object.
And because the “shape” factor cancels in the Conveyance Equation for n = 3,
Fermat’s Last Theorem tells us that, regardless of the number of sides, no two regular polyhedrons composed of
unitary quantum volumes can combine to form a third regular polyhedron composed
of unitary quantum volumes.
To help understand the physical implications of this, suppose our
true quantum unit exists in the shape of a cube. Using it as a literal building
block, we can maintain particle symmetry by constructing larger cubes,
combining our basic building blocks as follows: a cube with two blocks on each
side contains 8 blocks; a cube with three blocks on each side contains 27
blocks; a cube with four blocks on each side contains 64 blocks, each being the
cubic exponent of the number of blocks on each side. Fermat’s Last Theorem
tells us that if we stack the blocks of any two such symmetric forms together,
attempting to keep the number of blocks on all sides the same, the resulting
stack of blocks will always be at least one block short, or one or more blocks
over the number needed to form a perfect cube. Recall that if these blocks are elementary particles, they are spinning
with very high rates of angular velocity, and the spinning object resulting
from combining two symmetric objects composed of unitary quantum volumes will
be asymmetric, causing its increasing angular momentum to throw off any extra
blocks until it reaches a stable, symmetrically spinning form.
This requirement of symmetry for
physical stability creates the intrinsic dimensionometric structure of reality that
is reflected in the three-dimensional Conveyance Expression. We are interested
in the 3-D conveyance equation because experimental observation and
measurements are limited to quantum time slices (T = 1) in three dimensions,
indicating no movement in time. It turns out that there can be stable structures, because when n = m =3, the Conveyance Expression yields the equation:
(X1)3 + (X2)3 +
(X3)3= Z3,
which does have integer
solutions. The first one (with the smallest integer values) is:
33 + 43 + 53= 63
It is important to recognize the implications of Σni=1 (Xn)m = Zm.
When n, m, the Xi and
Z are integers, an exact Diophantine expression of the form of the logical structure of the
substrate of reality as it is communicated to the 3S-1t domain. For this
reason, we call it the Conveyance Expression. It should be
clear that the Diophantine equations yielded by this expression are appropriate
for the mathematical analysis of the combination of unitary quantum particles.
When the Diophantine expressions it yields are equations with integer solutions, they represent stable
combinations of quantum equivalence units, and when they do not have integer
solutions, the expressions are inequalities
representing asymmetric, and therefore, unstable
structures.
In the quantized nine-dimensional
domains of TDVP, the variables of the Conveyance Equations are necessarily
integers, making them Diophantine equations, because only the integer solutions
represent quantized combinations. When n
= m = 2, we have the Pythagorean Theorem equation for which the integer
solutions are the “Pythagorean Triples”. When n = 3 and m = 2, the
Conveyance Equation yields the inequality of Fermat’s Last Theorem, excluding
binomial combinations from the stable structures that elementary particles may
form. On the other hand, the Diophantine Conveyance Expression when n = m = 3, integer solutions produce in
some instances trinomial combinations of elementary particles that will form stable structures. This explains why there is something rather
than nothing, and why quarks are only found in combinations of three.
Embedded within multiple hyper-dimensional domains (more than
three dimensions) are three dimensions of space and three dimensions of time
that are temporarily contracted during observations, and condensed into the
distinctions of spinning energy (energy vortices) that form the structure of
what we perceive as the physical universe. In the humanly observable domain of
3S-1t, this spectrum ranges from the photon, which is perceived as pure energy,
to the electron, with a tiny amount of inertial mass (0. 51 MeV/c2 ≈
1 x10-47 kg.) to quarks ranging from the “up” quark at about 2. 4
MeV/c2, to the “top” quark at about 1. 7 x105 MeV/c2,
to the Hydrogen atom at about 1x109 MeV/c2 (1.67
x10-27kg.), to the heaviest known element, Copernicum (named after
Nicolaus Copernicus) at 1.86 x10-24 kg [1]. So the heaviest atom has
about 1023 times, that is, about 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
times heavier than the inertial mass of the lightest particle, the electron.
All of the Elements of the Periodic Table are made up of stable
vortical distinctions that are known as fermions, “particles” with an intrinsic
angular spin of 1/2, or they are made up of combinations of fermions. Table 10, above, lists the fermions that make
up the Hydrogen atom and their parameters of spin, charge and mass based on
experimental data. The top and bottom quarks and the charm and strange quarks
are ephemeral unstable particles so are not part of the calculations, and nor
are neutrinos or any “anti-particles”. Our focus here is on stable particles
that make up the observable universe.
Neils Bohr’s solution of the EPR paradox following Bell’s
theorem 59, validated by the Aspect
experiment 63 and many subsequent
experiments refined to rule out other possible explanations, tells us that
newly formed fermions do not exist as localized particles until they impact
irreversibly on a receiver constituting an observation or measurement. In the
TDVP unified view of reality, every stable elementary particle, every distinct
entity in the whole range of fermions and composite particles composed of
fermions, is drawn from the discrete transfinite embedded within the continuous
infinity of reality when it is registered as a finite distinction in an
observation or measurement. Our limitations of observation and measurement and
the dimensional structure of reality result in our perception of fermions as
separate objects with different combinations of inertial mass and energy.
What determines the unique mix that
makes up each type of observed particle? To answer this question, we must
continue our investigation of the rotation of the minimum quantal units across
the four dimensions of space, time and the additional dimensions revealed by
the mathematics of TDVP.
One of the most important invariant
relationships between dimensional domains is the fact that each n-dimensional domain
is embedded in an n+1 dimensional
domain. This means that all distinctions of extent, from the
ninth-dimensional domain down, and the distinctions of content within them, are
inextricably linked by virtue of being sequentially embedded. Because of this
intrinsic linkage, the structure of any distinction with finite extent and
content, from the smallest particle to the largest object in the universe,
reflects patterns existing in the logical structure of the substrate of
reality. Such a distinct object will always have in its content, combinations
of the forms reflecting those patterns. In a quantized reality, the
dimensionometric forms of such objects will be symmetric and a multiple of the
smallest unit of measurement.
Stable vortical forms and true quantal units
Chemists trained in the current paradigm think of the combination
of elementary particles and elements as forming atoms and molecules by the
physical bonding of their structures, and model these combinations in
tinker-toy fashion with plastic or wooden spherical objects connected by single
or double cylindrical spokes. This is helpful for visualizing molecular
compounds in terms of their constituents prior to combining, but that is not
necessarily what actually happens.
Inside a stable organic molecule, volumetrically symmetric atoms
are not simply attached; their sub-atomic spinning vortical “particles”
combine, forming a new vortical object. Elementary particles are rapidly
spinning symmetric vortical objects and when three of them combine in
proportions that satisfy the three-dimensional Conveyance Equation, they do not
simply stick together - they combine to form a new, dimensionally stable,
symmetrically-spinning object. Because they are spinning in more than one
plane, these objects are best conceived of as closed vortical solitions.[2]
The triadic combinations of elementary vortical objects, like up-
and down-quarks, form new vortical objects called protons and neutrons, the
combinations of electrons, protons and neutrons form new vortical objects
called elements. And the triadic combinations of volumetrically symmetric
elements form new vortical objects called organic molecules. Thus, the dimensional forms of symmetrically-spinning objects formed
by the combining of smaller vortical objects form closed vortices in 3S-1t with
new physical and chemical characteristics, depending upon both their internal
and external structure. We apply the volume of the smallest possible
quantized vortical object as the basic unit of measurement, the true quantal
unit. The substance of all particles is then measurable in whole-number
multiples of this unit.
[2] In mathematics and physics, a solition is a self-reinforcing
solitary wave (a wave packet or pulse) that maintains its shape
while it propagates at a constant velocity. Solitions are caused by a
cancellation of nonlinear and dispersive
effects in
the medium: The term "dispersive effects" refers to a property of
certain systems where the speed of the waves varies according to frequency.
Solitions are the solutions of a widespread class of weakly nonlinear
dispersive partial
differential equations describing physical systems. 98
